- Shashidhar Mehta1, Sandhya S. Mehta2, Suhel Parvez3, Suhasini Bhatnagar4
1Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Institute, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007 India
2Department of Medical Microbiology, Lady Harding Medical College & S. K. Hospital, New Delhi
3Department of Medical Toxicology, Jamia Hamdard University, Delhi-110062, India
4Department of Biochemistry, Mewar University, Chittorgarh, Rajasthan-312901, India
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.47191/ijahm/v15i2.14
ABSTRACT:
Neuropathic pain is a severe form of pain that is brought on by dysfunction in the brain and is connected with a number of degenerative alterations in the nervous system. Hyperalgesia and allodynia are two of the main symptoms of pain. Many neurological diseases seen in chronic alcoholics are linked to dietary deficiencies, especially vitamin deficits that are crucial for healthy brain function. The brain may suffer from severe functional impairment and tissue damage, mostly neuronal and vascular, as a result of specific vitamin and nutritional shortages that develop in chronic alcoholics. Moreover, nutritional inadequacies in chronic alcoholics contribute to oxidative stress, metabolic dysfunction, ion channel dysfunction, and neurotransmitter dysfunction. There are numerous molecular mechanisms that contribute to the development of alcoholinduced neuropathy symptoms. A threonine/serine kinase protein kinase C (PKC) regulates various body functions like cell growth and differentiation, release of neurotransmitters, excitation of cellular membranes and in memory. It is necessary to investigate all connected pathways in order to create an effective therapy for neuropath disease.
KEYWORDS: Neuropathic pain, Allium sativum, Induced pain,Alcoholic neuropathy
REFERENCES:
1. Adams, R.D. and Victor, M. Principles of Neurology. Fifth edition. McGraw- Hill Inc., 1993, 12:1386.
2. Agar E, Demir S, Amanvermez R, Bosnak M, Ayyildiz M, Celik C. The changes in lipid peroxidation and GSH levels in the cerebellum of rats induced by ethanol consumption are prevented by vitamin E. Neurosci Res Commun., 2000, 27:191–197.
3. Ahlgren SC, Levine JD. Protein kinase C inhibitors decrease hyperalgesia and C-fiber hyperexcitability in the streptozotocin-diabetic rat. J Neurophysiol, 1994, 72: 684–92.
4. Aley KO, Levine JD. Different peripheral mechanisms mediate enhanced nociception in metabolic/toxic and traumatic painful peripheral neuropathies in the rat. Neuroscience, 2002, 111:389–97.
5. Ammendola A, Tata MR, Aurilio C, Ciccone G, Gemini D, Ammendola E, Ugolini G, Argenzio F. Peripheral neuropathy in chronic alcoholism: a retrospective cross-sectional study in 76 subjects. Alcohol Alcohol, 2001,36:271–75.
6. Arundine M, Tymianski M. Molecular mechanisms of calcium-dependent neurodegeneration in excitotoxicity. Cell calcium. 2003;34(4-5):325-37.
7. Atukorala, T.M.S., Herath, C.A. and Ramachandran, S. Zinc and vitamin A status of alcoholics in a medical unit in Sri Lanka. Alcohol and alcoholism,1986, 21(3),269-275.
8. Blocker, D.E. and Thenen, S.W. Intestinal absorption, liver uptake, and excretion of 3H-folic acid in folic acid-deficient, alcohol-consuming nonhuman primates. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 1987, 46(3),503-510.
9. Bosch EP, Pelham RW, Rasool CG, Chatterjee A, Lash RW, Brown L, Munsat TL, Bradley WG. Animal models of alcoholic neuropathy: morphologic, electrophysiologic, and biochemical findings. Muscle Nerve, 1979, 2:133–144.
10. Bosch-Morell F,Martinez-Soriano F, Colell A, Fernandez-Checa JC, Romero FJ. Chronic ethanol feeding induces cellular antioxidants decrease and oxidative stress in rat peripheral nerves: effect of s-adenosyl-l-methionine and n-acetyl-l-cysteine. Free Radic Biol Med ., 1998, 25:365–68.
11. Boveris A, Fraga CG, Varsavsky AI, Koch OR. Increased chemiluminescence and superoxide production in the liver of chronically ethanol-treated rats. Arch Biochem Biophys., 1983, 227:534-541.
12. Campbell, J.N. and Meyer, R.A. “Mechanisms of Neuropathic Pain.” Neuron., 2006, 52: 77–92.
13. Chandler, L.J.; Sutton, G.; Norwood, D.; Sumners, C.; and Crews, F.T. Chronic ethanol increases NMDA-stimulated nitric oxide formation but not receptor density in cultured cortical neurons. Mol Pharmacol 1997, 51:733–740.
14. Charness ME .Brain lesions in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin Exp Res., 1993, 17:2-11.
15. Choi D.W. Excitotoxic cell death. J Neurobiol., 1992, 23:1261-1276.
16. Cline MA, Ochoa J, Torebjork HE. Chronic hyperalgesia and skin warming caused by sensitized C nociceptors. Brain. 1989;112:621-647.
17. Davis K.M. and Wu J.Y. Role of glutamenergic and GABAergic systems in alcoholism. J Biomed Sci., 2001, 8:7-19.
18. Davis-Taber, R., Baker, S., Lehto, S.G., Zhong, C., Surowy, C.S., Scott, V.E. and Honore, P. Central pituitary adenylate cyclase I receptors modulate nociceptive behaviors in both inflammatory and neuropathic pain states. J. Pain, 2008, 9: 449-456.
19. DeLeo JA and Colburn RW. Proinflammatory cytokines and glial cells: their role in neuropathic pain. Cytokines and Pain (Watkins LR and Maier SF), 1999, 159–181.
20. DeLeo JA and Yezierski RP. The role of neuroinflammation and neuroimmune activation in persistent pain. Pain, 2001, 90:1–6.
21. Dina OA, Barletta J, Chen X, Mutero A, Martin A, Messing RO, Levine JD. Key role for the epsilon isoform of protein kinase C in painful alcoholic neuropathy in the rat. J Neuroscience, 2000, 20:8614–8619.
22. Dina OA, Gear RW, Messing RO, Levine JD. Severity of alcohol-induced painful peripheral neuropathy in female rats: role of estrogen and protein kinase (A and C epsilon). J Neuroscience, 2007, 145: 350–6.
23. Dodd P.R., Beckmann A.M., Davidson M.S. and Wilce P.A. Glutamate mediated transmission, alcohol and alcoholism. Neurochem Int., 2000, 37:509-533.
24. Ekstrom G, Ingelman-Sundberg M. Rat liver microsomal NADPH-supported oxidase activity and lipid peroxidation dependent on ethanol-inducible cytochrome P-450. Biochem Pharmacol, 1989, 38:1313-1319.
25. Fadda F and Rossetti ZL. Chronic ethanol consumption: from neuroadaptation to neurodegenration. Prog Neurobiol., 1998, 56:385-431.
26. Ferraguti F, Baldani-Guerra B, Corsi M, Nakanishi S, Corti C. Activation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 2 by metabotropic glutamate receptors. Eur J Neurosci., 1999, 11:2073–2082.
27. Fisher K, Coderre TJ. Comparison of nociceptive effects produced by intrathecal administration of mGluR agonists. NeuroReport, 1996a, 7:2743–2747.
28. Fitzgerald, M. Capsaicin and sensory neurones: A review. Pain., 1983, 15, 109–130.
29. Ganguli M, Vander Bilt J, Saxton JA, Shen C, Dodge HH. Alcohol consumption and cognitive function in late life: a longitudinal community study. Neurology, 2005, 65:1210–7.
30. Gilron, I., Watson, C.P., Cahill, C.M. and Moulin, D.E. Neuropathic pain: a practical guide for the clinician. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 2006, 102:1473-1479.
31. Glynn P. Neural development and neurodegeneration: two faces of neuropathy target esterase. Prof Neurobiol, 2000, 61 (1):61-74.
32. Guo R, Ren J. Alcohol and acetaldehyde in public health: from marvel to menace. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2010 Apr;7(4):1285-301.
33. Hamel, J., & Logigian, E. L. Acute nutritional axonal neuropathy. Muscle & Nerve,2018, 57(1), 33-39.
34. Hammi C, Yeung B. Neuropathy. InStatPearls [Internet] 2022, StatPearls Publishing
35. Hammi, Claudia, and Brent Yeung. "Neuropathy." In StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing, 2022. Achord JL. Alcohol and the liver. Sci Amer Sci Med.,1995, 2:16–25.
36. Hawley RJ, Kurtzke JF, Armbrustmacher VW, Saini N, Manz H. The course of alcoholic-nutritional peripheral neuropathy. Acta Neurol Scand., 1982, 66:582–89.
37. Hawley, R.J., Kurtzke, J.F., Armbrustmacher, V.W., Saini, N. and Manz, H. The course of alcoholic‐nutritional peripheral neuropathy. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 1982,66(5), pp.582-589.
38. HerHoek J B and Kholodenko B N. The intracellular signaling network as a target for ethanol. Alcohol: Clin Exp Res, 1998, 22:224S.
39. Hoffmann P.L., Iorio K.R., Snell L.D. and Tabakoff B. Attenuation of glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in chronically ethanol-exposed cerebellar granule cells by NMDA receptor antagonists and ganglioside. Alcohol Clin Exp Res., 1995, 19:721-726.
40. Hofmann J. The potential for isoenzyme-selective modulation of protein kinase C. Faseb J., 1997, 11:649-669.
41. Hopkins SJ and Rothwell NJ. Cytokines and the nervous system. I. Expression and recognition. Trends Neurosci.,1995, 18:83–88.
42. Hoyumpa AM Jr. Mechanisms of thiamin deficiency in chronic alcoholism. Am J Clin Nutr., 1980, 33:2750–2761.
43. Hu X.J. and Ticku M.K. Chronic ethanol treatment upregulates the NMDA receptor function and binding in mammalian cortical neurons. Brain Res Mol., 1995, 30:347-356.
44. Ingelman-Sundberg M，Johansson I. Mechanisms of hydroxyl radical formation and ethanol oxidation by ethanol-inducible and other forms of rabbit liver microsomal cytochromes P-450. J Biol Chem.,, 1984, 259:6447-6457.
45. Ishii H, Kurose I, Kato S. Pathogenesis of alcoholic liver disease with particular emphasis on oxidative stress. J Gastroenterol Hepatol., 1997,12:S272-S282.
46. Isokawa M. Modulation of GABAA receptor-mediated inhibition by postsynaptic calcium in epileptic hippocampal neurons. Brains Res., 1998, 784:347-350.
47. Ji RR, Baba H, Brenner GJ, Woolf CJ. Nociceptive-specific activation of ERK in spinal neurons contributes to pain hypersensitivity. Nat Neurosci., 1999, 2:1114 –1119.
48. Jia H, Rustioni A, Valtschanoff JG. Metabotropic glutamate receptors in superficial laminae of the rat dorsal horn. J Comp Neurol., 1999, 410: 627–42.
49. Joseph EK, Levine JD. Caspase signalling in neuropathic and inflammatory pain in the rat. Eur J Neurosci., 2004, 20:2896–902.
50. Julius D, Basbaum AI. Molecular mechanisms of nociception. Nature 2001, 413: 203–10.
51. Jung ME, Gatch MB, Simpkins JW. Estrogen neuroprotection against the neurotoxic effects of ethanol withdrawal: potential mechanisms. Exp Biol Med., 2005, 230: 8–22.
52. Khasar SG, Lin YH,Martin A, Dadgar J,McMahon T,Wang D, Hundle B, Aley KO, Isenberg W,McCarter G, Green PG, Hodge CW, Levine JD,Messing RO. A novel nociceptor signaling pathway revealed in protein kinase C epsilon mutant mice. Neuron.,1999, 24: 253–60.
53. Koike H and Sobue G. Alcoholic neuropathy. Curr Opin Neurol., 2006, 19: 481–6.
54. Koike H, Iijima M, Mori K, Hattori N, Ito H, Hirayama M, Sobue G. Postgastrectomy polyneuropathy with thiamine deficiency is identical to beriberi neuropathy. Nutrition, 2004, 20: 961–6.
55. Koike H, Iijima M, Sugiura M,Mori K, Hattori N, Ito H, Hirayama M, Sobue G. Alcoholic neuropathy is clinicopathologically distinct from thiamine-deficiency neuropathy. Ann Neurol., 2003, 54:19–29.
56. Koike H,Mori K,Misu K, Hattori N, Ito H, Hirayama M, Sobue G. Painful alcoholic polyneuropathy with predominant small-fiber loss and normal thiamine status. Neurology., 2001a, 56: 1727–32.
57. Krebs JF, Armstrong RC, Srinivasan A, Aja T,Wong AM, boy A, Sayers R, Pham B, Vu T, Hoang K, Karanewsky DS, Leist C, Schmitz A,Wu JC, Tomaselli KJ, Fritz LC. Activation of membrane-associated procaspase-3 is regulated by Bcl-2. J Cell Biol., 1999, 144: 915–26.
58. Kucera P, Balaz M, Varsik P, Kurca E. Pathogenesis of alcoholic neuropathy. Bratisl Lek Listy., 2002, 103:26–9.
59. Kukielka E, Dicker E, Cederbaum AI. Increased production of reactive oxygen species by rat liver mitochondria after chronic ethanol treatment. Archives Biochemistry Biophysics, 1994, 309:377-86.
60. Kumar S., Fleming R.L. and Morrow A.L. Ethanol regulation of gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors: genomic and nongenomic mechanisms. Pharmacol Ther., 2004, 101:211-226.
61. Levy D, Zochodne DW. NO pain: potential roles of nitric oxide in neuropathic pain. Pain Pract., 2004, 4:11–8.
62. Lieber CS. Hepatic and other medical disorders of alcoholism: from pathogenesis to treatment. J Stud Alcohol, 1998, 59:9–25.
63. Lovinger D.M. Excitotoxicity and alcohol related brain damage. Alcohol Clin Exp Res., 1993, 17:19-27.
64. Ludin HP and Tackman W. Polyneuropathien. Stuttgart--New York, George Thieme Verlag, 1984, 250-255.
65. Martin, P. R. "Molecular mechanisms of thiamine utilization." Current molecular medicine, 2001, 1, 197-207.
66. Masaki T,Mochizuki H,Matsushita S, Yokoyama A, Kamakura K, Higuchi S. Association of aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 polymorphism with alcoholic polyneuropathy in humans. Neurosci Lett., 2004, 363:288–90.
67. Mawdsley C and Mayer RF, C.; Mayer, R. F. "Nerve Conduction in Alcoholic Polyneuropathy". Brain; a journal of neurology, 1965, 88: 335–356.
68. McMahon, S.B., Dmitrieva, N. and Koltzenburg, M. Visceral Pian. Br. J. Anaesth., 1995, 75:132-144.
69. Meller ST, Dykstra C, Gebhart GF. Acute thermal hyperalgesia in the rat is produced by activation of N-methyl d-aspartate receptors and protein kinase C and production of nitric oxide. Neuroscience, 1996, 71: 327–35.
70. Merskey H, Bogduk N, eds. Classification of chronic pain. Seattle: IASP Press, 1994.
71. Miller, R.J. Protein kinase C: a key regulator of neuronal excitability? Trends Neurosci., 1986, 9:538-541.
72. Miyoshi K, Narita M, Takatsu M, Suzuki T. mGlu5 receptor and protein kinase C implicated in the development and induction of neuropathic pain following chronic ethanol consumption. Eur J Pharmacol., 2007, 562: 208–11.
73. Mochly-Rosen D. & Kauvar L.M. Modulating protein kinase C signal transduction. Adv. Pharmacol., 1998, 44:91-145.
74. Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL. Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000. Jama. 2004 Mar 10;291(10):1238-45.
75. Monforte, R., Estruch, R. and Valls-Sole, J. Autonomic and peripheral neuropathies in patients with chronic alcoholism. A dose-related toxic effect of alcohol. Archives of Neurology, 1995, 52:45–51.
76. Moretto A. Promoters and promotion of axonopathies. Toxicol Lett., 2000, 17:112-133.
77. Nagy J. Renaissance of NMDA receptor antagonists: do they have a role in the pharmacotherapy for alcoholism? Idrugs., 2004, 7:339-350.
78. Narita M,Miyoshi K, Narita M, Suzuki T. Involvement of microglia in the ethanol-induced neuropathic pain-like state in the rat. Neurosci Lett., 2007, 414: 21–5.
79. Newton PM, Tully K, McMahon T, Connolly J, Dadgar J, Treistman SN, Messing RO. Chronic ethanol exposure induces an N-type calcium channel splice variant with altered channel kinetics. FEBS letters. 2005;579(3):671-6.
80. Nordmann R, Ribiere C, Rouach H. Implication of free radical mechanisms in ethanol-induced cellular injury. Free Radic Biol Med., 1992, 12:219-240.
81. Norenberg ND. Astrocyte responses to CNS injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol., 1994; 53: 213–20.
82. Nutt D.J. and Glue P. Neuropharmacological and clinical aspects of alcohol withdrawal. Ann Med., 1990, 22:275-281.
83. Ochoa J and Torebjork HE. Paraesthesiae from ectopic impulse generation in human sensory nerves. Brain, 1980, 103:835– 854.
84. Peavy RD, Conn PJ. Phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase in cultured rat cortical glia by stimulation of metabotropic glutamate receptors. J Neurochem., 1998, 71:603– 612.
85. Pentney RJ and Quackenbush LJ. Dendritic hypertrophy in Purkinje neurons of old Fischer 344 rats after long-term ethanol treatment. Alcohol Clin Exp Res., 1990, 14:878–886.
86. Raghavendra V and DeLeo JA. The role of astrocytes and microglia in persistent pain, in Non-Neuronal Cells in the Nervous System: Function and Dysfunction. Elsevier, Amsterdam, in press., 2003.
87. Rashba Step J, Turro NJ, Cederbaum AI. Increased NADPH- and NADH-dependent production of superoxide and hydroxyl radical by microsomes after chronic ethanol treatment. Arch Biochem Biophys., 1993, 300:401-408.
88. Ratcliff EV. Alcoholic neuropathies. Aust Fam Physician., 1979, 8:171–7.
89. Reddy SK, Husain K, Schlorff EC, Scott RB, Somani SM. Dose response of ethanol ingestion on antioxidant defense system in rat brain subcellular fractions. Neurotoxicology, 1999, 20: 977-87.
90. Robbins MA,Maksumova L, Pocock E, Chantler JK. Nuclear factor-kappa B translocation mediates double-stranded ribonucleic acid-induced NIT-1 beta-cell apoptosis and up-regulates caspase-12 and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated ligand (TRAIL). Endocrinology, 2003, 144: 4616–25.
91. Sakurada, T., Matsumura, T., Moriyama, T., Sakurada, C., Ueno, S. and Sakurada, S. Differential effects of intraplantar capsazepine and ruthenium red on capsaicin induced desensitization in mice . Pharmacol. Biochem. and Behav., 2003, 75:115-121.
92. Scholz, J. and Woolf, C.J. The neuropathic pain triad: neurons, immune cells and glia. Nat Neurosci., 2007, 10: 13631-1368.
93. Serhan. C.N., Chiang, N. and Van Dyke, T.E. Resolving inflammation: dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid mediators. Nat. Rev. immunol., 2008, 8: 349-361.
94. Sher L. Alcohol consumption and suicide. Qjm. 2006 Jan 1;99(1):57-61.
95. Singleton CK, Martin PR. Molecular mechanisms of thiamine utilization. Curr Mol Med., 2001, 1:197–207.
96. Somani SM, Husain K. Interaction of exercise training and chronic ethanol ingestion on antioxidant system of rat brain regions. JAppl Toxicol., 1997, 7:329-36.
97. Stobbs S.H., Ohran A.J., Lassen M.B., Allison D.W., Brown J.E. and Steffensen S.C. Ethanol suppression of ventral tegmental area GABA neuron electrical transmission involves N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther., 2004, 311:282-289.
98. Sung CS,Wen ZH, Chang WK, Ho ST, Tsai SK, Chang YC, Wong CS. Intrathecal interleukin-1beta administration induces thermal hyperalgesia by activating inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in the rat spinal cord. Brain Res., 2004, 1015:145–53.
99. Takeuchi M and Saito T. Cytotoxicity of acetaldehyde-derived advanced glycation end-products (AA-AGE) in alcoholic-induced neuronal degeneration. Alcohol Clin Exp Res.,2005, 29:220.
100. Tiwari V, Kuhad A, Chopra K. Suppression of neuro-inflammatory signaling cascade by tocotrienol can prevent chronic alcohol-induced cognitive dysfunction in rats. Behav Brain Res., 2009, 203:296–303.
101. Thomas K, Hunt S. The regional distribution of extracellularly regulated kinase-1 and kinase-2. Neuroscience, 1993, 56:741–757.
102. Tracey, D.J. and Walker, J.S. Pain due to nerve damage: are inflammatory mediators involved? Inflamm. Res., 1995, 44: 407-411.
103. Treede, R.D., Meyer, R.A., Raja, S.N. and Campbell, J.N. Peripheral and central mechanism of cutaneous hyperalgesia. Prog. Neurobiol., 1992, 38: 397-421.
104. Truelsen T, Thudium D, Gronbaek M. Amount and type of alcohol and risk of dementia: the Copenhagen City Heart Study. Neurology, 2002, 59:1313–9.
105. Valerio A, Paterlini M, Boifava M,Memo M, Spano P. Metabotropic glutamate receptor mRNA expression in rat spinal cord. Neuroreport., 1997, 8:2695–9.
106. Victor, M. Polyneuropathy due to nutritional deficiency and alcoholism. Saunders, London, 1975.
107. Walter HJ, McMahon T, Dadgar J, Wang D, Messing RO. Ethanol regulates calcium channel subunits by protein kinase C δ-dependent and-independent mechanisms. Journal of Biological Chemistry. 2000;275(33):25717-22.
108. Woolf CJ, Costigan M. Transcriptional and posttranslational plasticity and the generation of inflammatory pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA.1999; 96:7723–7730.
109. Yerdelen D, Koc F, Uysal H. Strength-duration properties of sensory and motor axons in alcoholic polyneuropathy. Neurol Res. 2008.
110. Young MR, Fleetwood-Walker SM, Dickinson T, Blackburn-Munro G, Sparrow H, Birch PJ, Bountra C. Behavioural and electrophysiological evidence supporting a role for group I metabotropic glutamate receptors in the mediation of nociceptive inputs to the rat spinal cord. Brain Res.,1997, 777:161–9.
111. Zima T, Fialova L, Metsek O, Janebova M, Crkovska J, Malbohan I. Oxidative stress, metabolism of ethanol and alcohol-related diseases. Journal of Biomedical Science, 2001, 8:59-70.
112. Zou J, Rabin RA, Pentney RJ. Ethanol enhances neurite outgrowth in primary cultures of rat cerebellar macroneurons. Brain Res Dev Brain Res., 1993, 72:75–84.